Arab & Turkish Invasions

The phase between the decline of the great ancient empires and the rise of the Delhi Sultanate is called the Early Medieval Period, marked by foreign invasions and the rule of the Rajput clans in North India.

• India faced three waves of invasion from the north-west: the Arabs, the Ghaznavids (Turks), and the Ghurids (Turks).
• Each wave came through Afghanistan and the north-western passes, attracted by the famed wealth of India.
• The third wave (Ghori) was the only one that led to permanent Turkish rule — the Delhi Sultanate.

The first Muslim invasion of India was the Arab conquest of Sindh — a successful military campaign but a limited one, since it did not spread beyond Sindh and Multan.

• The Arabs first contacted India through trade and naval expeditions in the 7th century CE.
• The immediate cause was the plunder of Arab ships by pirates of Debal; King Dahir refused to punish the pirates.
• Hajjaj, the governor of Iraq, dispatched an army under his military general (and son-in-law) Muhammad bin Qasim.
• Muhammad bin Qasim was the general of the Umayyad Caliphate.
• He defeated and killed Raja Dahir (ruler of Sindh) in the Battle of Rewar (Raor) and captured Sindh.
• He then captured Brahmanabad, Alor (his capital) and parts of Multan.
• Qasim called Multan the "City of Gold" because of its great wealth and trade.
• This conquest is recorded in the Chachnama, an early 13th-century Persian translation of an old Arabic history.

• Sindh and Multan were divided into Iqtas (districts) headed by Arab military officers; sub-divisions were run by local Hindu officers.
• Jizya tax was imposed on non-Muslims.
• Qasim's rule lasted only 2 years, but Arabs settled in Sindh and the Arab influence lasted long.
• Caliph Walid was succeeded by Caliph Sulaiman, an enemy of Hajjaj; Qasim was recalled to Mesopotamia and tortured to death.
• Islam was first introduced in India by Malik Ibn Dinar in Kerala (644 CE), even before the Sindh conquest.

The second wave came from the Ghaznavid (Yamini) dynasty of Ghazni in present-day Afghanistan. Its greatest ruler, Mahmud, raided India repeatedly for plunder rather than to build an empire.

• The Ghaznavids were a Turkish dynasty; Alaptigin established an independent kingdom with Ghazni as capital.
• Mahmud's objective was simple — "Loot! Loot! Loot!" — wealth, territory and political dominance.
• His initial raids were directed against the Hindushahi rulers (Jayapala, Anandpala).
• In 1001, he defeated Jayapala; the Battle of Waihind (1008–09) was fought against Anandpala.
• Mahmud invaded Kannauj in 1018 and sacked the Somnath temple in 1025–26 (his 16th raid) — his most famous attack.
• He was the first ruler to adopt the title "Sultan"; he was also known as "But-Shikan" (idol-breaker) and "Ghazi", and issued coins of 30 grams.
• Mahmud died at Ghazni in 1030 CE.

• Al-Biruni came with Mahmud and wrote "Kitab-ul-Hind" (Tahqiq-i-Hind), a famous account of India.
• Firdausi, the poet laureate, wrote the "Shah Namah".
• Utbi wrote the "Kitab-i-Yamini"; Baihaki wrote the "Tarikh-i-Subuktigin".

The third and decisive wave came from the Ghurid dynasty of north-west Afghanistan. Unlike Mahmud, Muhammad Ghori aimed to conquer and rule, and his victories opened India to Turkish power.

• The Ghurids first rose as vassals of Ghazni, then threw off its yoke; their power grew under Sultan Alauddin, who earned the title "Jahan-soz" (World-burner).
• Shahabuddin Muhammad (Muhammad Ghori) ascended the throne at Ghazni in 1173.
• His first attack on India was on Multan (1175); he attacked Gujarat (1178) but was defeated by Bhima II (Bhim Dev II) of the Solankis.
• By 1190, Ghori had conquered Peshawar, Lahore and Sialkot.
• He left India in charge of his trusted slave Qutub-ud-din Aibak, who later founded the Slave (Mamluk) Dynasty — the start of the Delhi Sultanate.

The rivalry between Muhammad Ghori and the Rajput hero Prithviraj Chauhan was decided in two battles at Tarain (near Thanesar), and the conquest of Kannauj sealed Turkish supremacy.

• The conflict began over rival claims to Tabarhinda (Bhatinda).
• First Battle of Tarain (1191): Ghori's forces were routed; his life was saved by a young Khalji horseman, and Prithviraj Chauhan won.
• Second Battle of Tarain (1192): Ghori returned and defeated Prithviraj Chauhan, who was captured near Saraswati — regarded as a turning point in Indian history.
• The Sufi saint Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti came to India with Muhammad Ghori.
• Battle of Chandawar (1194): Ghori defeated Jaichandra (Jaichand) of Kannauj.
• After Tarain II, Islamic rule was established in India; the battles of Tarain and Chandawar laid the foundation of Turkish rule.

• Qutub-ud-din Aibak — founded the Slave Dynasty and the Delhi Sultanate.
• Tajuddin Yalduz, Nasiruddin Qubacha and Bakhtiyar Khalji.

With the break-up of the Pratihara Empire, a number of independent Rajput states came into existence across North India. The Rajputs were brave warriors but politically divided, which made them vulnerable to the Turks.

• The Rajputs claimed descent through the Agnikula (fire-born) theory — that four Rajput clans (Pratiharas, Chauhans, Solankis/Chalukyas and Paramaras) arose from a sacrificial fire-pit at Mount Abu.
• The main clans included the Gahadavalas, Paramaras, Chauhans, Kalachuris, Chandelas, Chalukyas (Solankis), Tomars and the rulers of Bengal (Palas/Senas).
• They were great patrons of art, literature, temple architecture and learning, but their constant infighting weakened them.

The big Rajput dynasties, their regions, famous rulers and achievements form a very high-yield exam table.

The Chauhans (Chahamanas) of Ajmer were the most famous Rajput clan, and their last great ruler, Prithviraj Chauhan, became the symbol of Rajput resistance to the Turks.

• The Chauhans ruled the eastern parts of present-day Rajasthan between 956 and 1192 CE.
• Their capital was Ajmer, founded by Ajayraj (Simharaj), and they later captured Delhi from the Tomars.
• Prithviraj defeated Muhammad Ghori in the First Battle of Tarain (1191) but was defeated in the Second Battle of Tarain (1192).
• His court poet Chand Bardai wrote the famous epic "Prithviraj Raso".

These three dynasties of western and central India are remembered chiefly for their magnificent temples and learned rulers.

• Ruled Gujarat between 942 and 1297 CE; founder Mularaj, capital Anhilwara (Patan).
• Bhima I built the Sun Temple at Modhera; Queen Naikidevi (with her son Bhima II) defeated Muhammad Ghori in 1178.
• The dynasty was ended by Alauddin Khalji; the Jain scholar Hemachandra adorned the court of Kumarapala.

• Founder Upendra (Krishnaraja); capital Ujjain, later Dhar (Dharanagari).
• The last king, Mahalakadeva, was defeated and killed by Alauddin Khalji in 1305 CE.

• Founder Nannuka; capital Mahoba, with Khajuraho as the religious centre and Kalinjar the great fort.
• The Chandelas built the famous Khajuraho temples, including the Kandariya Mahadeva temple.
• Vidyadhara built the Kandariya Mahadeva; the dynasty fell after Alauddin Khalji conquered Bundelkhand.

These two dynasties controlled Delhi and Kannauj respectively — both central to the story of the Turkish conquest.

• Anangpal Tomar I founded the city of Dhillika in 736 CE; Anangpal II created the Anangtal Lake (1060) and built Lal Kot.
• Qila Rai Pithora was built by Prithviraj III, encircling Lal Kot on three sides; the Tomars were defeated by the Chauhans of Ajmer.
• The Gahadavalas of Kanauj-Varanasi ruled in the 11th–12th centuries; the first king was Chandradeva.
• Their last powerful king, Jaichandra, was defeated and killed by Ghori in the Battle of Chandawar (1194).

The Rajput age left a rich cultural legacy, yet politically it ended in defeat — and both points are exam favourites.

• Jayadeva's "Gita Govinda"; Somadeva's "Kathasaritsagar".
• Chand Bardai's "Prithviraj Raso" (court poet of Prithviraj Chauhan).
• Bhaskaracharya wrote "Siddhanta Shiromani" (astronomy); Rajasekhara (court poet of Mahendrapala) wrote Karpuramanjari and Kavyamimamsa.

• Khajuraho temples were built by the Chandelas.
• Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneswar; the Sun Temple at Konark; the Dilwara Temples at Mount Abu.

• Lack of unity — the Rajputs were politically divided and constantly fought one another.
• No central leadership against a common enemy.
• Outdated warfare and a defensive outlook, versus the fast Turkish cavalry and archers.
• A rigid code of chivalry that the better-organised Turks exploited.